Sámi and the mining of critical minerals: a threat to Indigenous lands and biodiversity

The need for renewable energy sources has strongly pushed the demand for critical materials such as lithium, and nickel. Even though there is no doubt that we need to transition from fossil to renewable energy, this surge has led to increased mining activities around the globe, for example in Indonesia and Ghana. Fewer people are aware that mining for the energy transition also takes place within the European Union, which directly affects the Sámi: the Indigenous people of northern Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula in Russia. Their territory is increasingly threatened by mineral mining and other extractive industries, which does not only endanger their way of life but also pose a significant risk to biodiversity. Although Scandinavian governments have enacted some legislation to recognise Sámi rights, enforcement gaps remain.

Header photo: Sámi Man by blueorangestudio

This article was written by an IUCN NL intern and does not necessarily reflect the position of IUCN NL.  

The Indigenous Sámi people 

Many Indigenous communities live in highly biodiverse areas, in balance with nature. They apply Indigenous knowledge systems and practices to protect, preserve, govern, and use natural resources in their territories. To them, their land has different intangible values, including sacred landscapes, storytelling traditions, and rituals that form the backbone of their existence ^[1]Dhillon, J., 2022. Indigenous resurgence: decolonization and movements for environmental justice..  

This is also the case for the Sámi people. Residing across Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia, they are the Indigenous inhabitants of northern Scandinavia and parts of Russia. Because their culture and identity revolve around nature, the Sami people have created their own governance systems and practices to conserve their territories. Their spiritual beliefs are tightly connected to their land, thus when land is seized or destroyed by industrial expansion, their culture and identity suffer irreparable harm. For the Sámi, who have traditionally lived in the Arctic and subarctic regions, their economic and cultural survival is deeply intertwined with the land and relates to activities like practicing reindeer herding, fishing, and small-scale farming. 

Moreover, Sámi spiritual values, oral traditions, and identity are rooted in their ancestral territories. The preservation of Sámi territories, that encompasses diverse ecosystems, is not only about conservation but also about safeguarding an entire way of life ^[2]Nusbaum, 2019. The Sámi. In 2010, for example, the Sámi people in Finland have actively worked on protecting biodiversity by successfully acquiring 800 square kilometres of land ^[3]Nusbaum, 2019. The Sámi. The area includes Finland’s old-growth forests that hosts a great number of biodiversity, including endangered species among them. The area is also important for reindeer herding, and its degradation would have put both the wildlife and the Sámi tradition at risk.  

While international legal instruments and Indigenous rights frameworks recognise the Sámi’s claims to their territories, the reality on the ground often sees these rights sidelined in favour of industrial expansion and economic gain. 

The energy transition 

The European Green Deal aims to make the EU climate-neutral by 2050 by promoting renewable energy and reducing greenhouse gas emissions ^[4]European Commission, 2019. The European Green Deal.. The Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) is part of it and seeks to secure resources such as lithium and rare earth elements for technologies like electric vehicles ^[5]European Commission, 2023. Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA).  

Whilst these are positive steps for more sustainable energy sources, their implementation often does not respect the rights of Indigenous peoples and local communities (IP&LCs). In addition, the CRMA does not encompass strong environmental safeguards to avoid deforestation and protect nature. In northern Sweden and Finland, for example, the policy has led to increased mining activity, directly impacting Sámi lands and further marginalising their voices in decision-making processes^[6]Sámi Council, 2023. Policy Paper on Mining and Renewable Energy..

Wind energy projects have disrupted traditional reindeer migration routes,^[7]Case study. Norway: Wind power threatens South Sami Peoples’ reindeer herding. leading to a landmark Supreme Court ruling in 2021 that found the project violated Sámi rights ^[8]Norwegian Supreme Court, 2021. Fosen Wind Farm Ruling.. Despite the ruling the turbines remain operational, demonstrating the weak enforcement of Indigenous protection within environmental policies according to the Sámi Parliament ^[9]Sami Parliament, 2022. Statement on Fosen Wind Farm.. 

Mining in Sámi territory 

In the Sámi territory, mining companies continue to extract valuable minerals such as iron ore and nickel, often without meaningful consultation with the Sámi people. The proposed Gállok/Kallak mining project in Sweden threatens reindeer migration routes and the biodiversity of the Laponia World Heritage site. In 2022, the Swedish government gave a mining company permission ^[10]Unesco, 2024. Laponian Area (called an “exploitation concession”) to potentially open an iron ore mine in the Kallak (Gállok) area, which is part of traditional Sámi territory. But this permission did not allow mining to start right away — the company still needed to get an environmental permit.  

The Sámi people, particularly the Jåhkågasska reindeer herding community, appealed this decision because the proposed mine would be in the middle of important reindeer migration routes. They were concerned it would harm their way of life, damage the environment, and that the government didn’t fully respect their right to be properly consulted before such a decision was made. Despite the appeal, in June 2024 Sweden’s highest administrative court ruled in favor of the government’s decision. However, the mine still cannot start operating until it gets more environmental approvals. Sámi communities and environmental groups continue to oppose the project, citing threats to their land, culture, and reindeer herding ^[11]UNESCO, 2024. Laponian area.. 

The 1998 Aarhus Convention links environmental and human rights by ensuring access to information, public participation, and justice in environmental matters ^[12]UNECE, 1998. The Aarhus Convention: Environmental Rights and Democracy.. It grants Indigenous peoples, including the Sámi, the right to participate in decisions affecting their lands. However, in the Gállok/Kallak case, Swedish authorities failed to secure free, prior, and informed consent, raising concerns over biodiversity loss and threats to traditional reindeer grazing in Laponia. 

Ignoring the Aarhus Convention endangers Sámi cultural heritage and sets a harmful precedent for future extractive projects needed for the energy transition. Enforcing the convention is crucial for the protection of Indigenous rights and to preserve northern Scandinavia’s ecosystems. 

Struggle for cultural recognition 

In addition to legal instruments, UNESCO World Heritage Sites can play a significant role in Indigenous rights advocacy. The Laponian Area in Sweden, inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1996, was recognised not only for its natural beauty but also for its importance to the Sámi reindeer herding culture ^[14]UNESCO, 1996. Laponian Area World Heritage Listing.. The designation strengthened Sámi influence over the site’s management, leading to the establishment of Laponiajuottjudus, a governing body where Sámi representatives hold the majority. 

However, UNESCO has also been criticised for failing to consider Indigenous voices and to include them in its conservation and protection strategies. In February 2022, concerns were raised about potential violations of Sámi rights ^[15]Ahtone, 2023. In Sweden, a proposed iron mine threatens a World Heritage Site — and the culture that made it and risks to the Laponia World Heritage Site due to the proposed Gállok/Kallak iron ore mine by British company Beowulf Mining and its Swedish subsidiary, Jokkmokk Iron Mines AB.  

The project, located in traditional Sámi territory, threatens reindeer migration routes and could impact Sámi cultural practices. Although the mine itself lies outside the Laponia site, associated infrastructure like roads and railways would cross the heritage area’s southeastern sector, raising concerns over irreversible environmental damage and a lack of proper consultation with the Sámi. Sámi people ask for the necessity of the lands outside of Laponia to ensure that the Sámi culture within Laponia can survive. UNESCO has been criticised for not adequately informing or consulting Indigenous communities about conservation designations. As representatives from the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs noted, many Indigenous peoples are unaware of World Heritage Site status until after it’s been established, due to poor transparency and communication.  

Protection of places must go beyond preserving its landscapes and historic sites. It is important to include the protection, respect, and participation of the people who have, for millennia, lived in good relation with that land and know, perhaps better than anyone, how to protect it for future generations. For it to be meaningful, good, and successful, the protection of land should also include the protection of Indigenous peoples. ^[16]Grist, 2023. In Sweden, a proposed iron mine threatens a World Heritage Site — and the culture that made it.. 

Regional legislation and its shortcomings 

Although Norway, Sweden, and Finland have enacted some legislation to recognise Sámi rights, gaps remain in their enforcement. The Norwegian Finnmark Act of 2005 grants Sámi greater control over land use but does not ensure full ownership ^[17]Norwegian Parliament, 2005. The Finnmark Act.. Sweden’s Reindeer Husbandry Act (1971) provides reindeer herding rights but fails to address broader land claims ^[18]Swedish Government, 1971. Reindeer Husbandry Act.. In Finland, the Sámi Parliament Act recognises Sámi cultural and linguistic rights but excludes land tenure ^[19]Finnish Parliament, 1995. Sámi Parliament Act.. 

The lack of enforceable land ownership laws has led to ongoing conflicts between Sámi communities and industries seeking access to natural resources. Additionally, national courts often side with government and corporate interests, undermining Indigenous land claims ^[20]Sámi Council, 2023. Policy Paper on Mining and Renewable Energy.. 

Bottom Line! A fair and successful energy transition  

There is no doubt that we need to accelerate the transition from fossil to renewable energy. But how do we ensure that we make this shift as fairly as possible, while minimising the negative impact on (Indigenous) people and nature? A coalition of civil society organisations is working towards a fair energy transition with the lowest possible impact on people and nature, both in the Netherlands and in sourcing countries like Indonesia, Ghana, and the Philippines. 

Read more about Bottom Line!